Parenting: Abuse and Neglect Essay

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The solemn responsibility of being parents to a child is grave, and the consequences are immense should they fail in any of the areas of parenthood. On the contrary, when it comes to deliberately hurting a child, or causing damage to their psyche’ as a person, the term â€Å"failure† would not be adequate or appropriate to describe its effects. Whether abusing or neglecting a small person, studies reveal that the results are almost the same: the destructive effects are colossal and prevailing for almost all of the rest of the child’s life. This paper attempts to describe, explain and enumerate various factors that point to parental abuse and neglect. It argues that though neglect and abuse may not have the same exact results or degree to the child or victim, both exhibit dire outcomes in the overall functioning and existence of the life of the child. Problem Statement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The following statements of the problem guide the direction of this study with the succeeding chapter providing the description towards these problem statements. Answers to the problems are incorporated in the analysis and discussion of the findings and results. Statement of the Problem What is parenting abuse? What is parenting neglect and the manners that parents show or demonstrate this negative aspect in a child’s life? What are the facts to consider regarding family factors, the victim, and the perpetrator on the problem? Methodology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The researcher utilized the convenience and accessibility of the World Wide Web and/or the internet, other books and journals available to the researcher. III. Analysis and Discussion of Findings and Results of study Parenting Abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As cited by Dr. Richard Gardner in the American Journal of Family Therapy (Gardner, 2002p.6), parental abuse may take many and varied forms. Some of them are subtle and may be very difficult to identify especially when proving them in the court of law. However, parental abuse occurs when a parent treats a child in a manner that results in physical injury, emotional or psychological harm, or anything that might cause the child to be exposed to serious threats such as deprivation of necessary parental benefits which eventually results in lifelong incapacity in the life of the child (Hay, Tom. 1997 in Whipple and Webster-Stratton, 1991). When the parent abuses his/her position of trust, that of being the child’s guardian and caregiver, the consequent result are maltreatment and exploitation. This is, basically, parenting abuse. Parental Neglect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is parenting neglect, and what are its manifestations or the manners that parents show or demonstrate this negative treatment of a child? Parental neglect is definitely a form of parental abuse. It is defined as a disregard of the fundamental responsibilities on the part of parent, or parents, to provide for the child’s emotional, psychological, and physical development. When parents fail to provide an atmosphere where a child can feel loved, wanted, and sheltered within home environment, parental neglect is taking place. If the parents are constantly physically unavailable, or physically present but inattentive to the child’s legitimate needs, they are essentially abandoning their primary duty as guardians. Although not easily identified as physical assault, parental neglect is equally serious and as damaging to a child ((Hay, Tom. 1997 in Rodgers, 1994, p. 14). Factors that Contribute to the Overall Set-up of Abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Facts point to many factors that must be considered when dealing with parental abuse and neglect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Family Factors. Child abuse happens anywhere in the population regardless of socio-economic status of the neighborhood. It occurs even when the family is religious or totally agnostic, or in families from culturally diverse backgrounds. Nonetheless, studies reveal the greater tendency for those coming from the lower economic echelon to experience neglect ((Hay, Tom. 1997 in Trocme et al., pp.  94-98).   There is a higher incidence too, for physical abuse (but not so much with emotional abuse) among the poverty stricken (Hay, Tom. 1997 in Jones and K. McCurdy, 1992, pp. 201-215). Unemployment in the family system is a contributor to stress which results to the likelihood of ill-treatment ((Hay, Tom. 1997 in Krishnan and Morrison, 1995, pp. 101-113).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Victim. As early as in prenatal stage, abuse can take place. If a pregnant mother is alcohol or drug user, it poses a real threat to the child in the womb. The tendency of the baby to be born with birth defects is very high and might cause retardation in physical or mental growth. The high threat that is posed to a child in the belly of a self-destructive mother cannot be underestimated. If perchance the child is successfully carried to its full term, damage has already been done by consistent substance abuse. The usual objects of abuse are children – preschoolers and infants (Hay, Tom. 1997 in Hegar et al., 1994, pp. 170-183). It might be that because children are naturally weak, they are predisposed to maltreatments, and are often overlooked by parents when arguing which at times culminate in aggression. As is always the case, children are the ultimate victims in abusive homes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Abuser. As often is the case, parents who are abusive were themselves abused in their childhood years. Many of this kind are not ready for family life. They get none or little enjoyment from their experience as parents. These tend to isolate themselves from their community and have a way of controlling their families which is unnatural. The way they manage their households is through authoritarian means. Experts noted that abusive parents are usually afraid to expose themselves or be vulnerable, and are emotionally weak and therefore unable to ask for help or support from social work organizations, or at least from concerned relatives (Hay, Tom. 1997 in Caliso and Milner, 1994, pp. 27-44). Conclusion and Recommendations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because of the increasing number of cases of child custody in courts, rules and regulations as to who will be the rightful custodian of the child in contest are several times expanded. The pros and cons of different sides of the issues are weighed carefully and from these amendments came the existing balancing of â€Å"tender-years presumption,† â€Å"best-interests-of-the-child presumption,† and the â€Å"joint-custodial concept.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is assumed that because mothers are female, and therefore naturally more doting to their children, they are viewed as inherently better than men when it comes to child-rearing. This is the presupposition under the tender-years presumption. And so, because of this heavy leaning of the law on the side of the mothers, the father seeking for the custody of his child must present convincing proofs to the court of the deficiencies on the part of the mother for the court to give some consideration in transferring to the father primary custodial status. Here enters the best-interests-of-the-child presumption. It ignores gender in custodial considerations. Instead, its focus is on the capacities of both parents in raising the child. Factors are carefully considered, especially those that relate to the child’s best interests. Often, fathers are on the advantageous side in this argument and have greater opportunity to secure primary custody status. The decade of 80’s has witnessed a burgeoning of child custody litigations and it was during this decade that the joint-custodial concept has become the prevailing trend in matters of child guardianship.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While courts of law has become sharper, and should I say, fairer, in meting out its judgment on child custody, it nonetheless created unintentionally a problem resulting from the constant amending and polishing of regulations in child custodianship. Parents in disputes, have now learned (either one of them or both) to manipulate and program the child to become alienated to the other parent. Experts call this problem â€Å"Parental Alienation Syndrome.† A parent who has the upper hand learns to scheme and make the child hostile to the estranged spouse in order to enhance his/her position in the course of the proceedings. PAS is a childhood disorder and is the actual result of the parents’ battle over the child in the court. If the child becomes hostile to one of his/her parents and engages in active campaign of denigration against this parent, the likelihood is that this child has been the victim of programming (brainwashing) by the other parent. This is parental alienation syndrome. And it uses the child in the campaign of vilification of the target parent (Gardner, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This is a pathetic scenario. Either of the parents definitely will finally win his/her case, but the one ending up to be the real loser is the child. Actually, the whole affair is itself an abuse of the child. Family is supposed to be a home and a place for children to grow healthy physically, emotionally, and intellectually. Home is not supposed to be a tug of war between parents where the rope being pulled is the child. Abuse and neglect should never become part of parenting styles. Reference Gardner, Richard. 2002. Parental Alienation Syndrome vs. Parental Alienation: Which diagnosis should evaluators use in child-custody disputes? The American Journal of Family Therapy, 30 (2): 93-115.New York:   Ã‚   Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in R.L. Hegar, S.J. Zuravin and J.G. Orme, â€Å"Factors    predicting severity of physical child abuse injury,†   Ã‚  Ã‚   Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9(2), 1994, pp.    170-183. Accessed July 7, 2007 Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in E.E. Whipple and C. Webster-Stratton, â€Å"The role of parental   Ã‚   stress in physically abusive families,†   Ã‚  Ã‚   Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(3), 1991,pp.  279-291.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Accessed July 7, 2007   Ã‚   Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in K. Rodgers, â€Å"Wife assault: The findings of a    national survey,† Juristat Service Bulletin, Accessed July 7, 2007   Ã‚   Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper:in Trocme et al., supra note 6, pp.  94-98. Accessed   Ã‚   July 7,2007 Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in   Ã‚   D. Jones and K. McCurdy, â€Å"The links between   Ã‚   types of maltreatment and demographic characteristics    of children,’† Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(2), 1992, pp. 201-215. Accessed July 7, 2007 Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in V. Krishnan and K.B. Morrison, â€Å"An  ecological model of child maltreatment in a Canadian province,†   Ã‚   Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(1), 1995, pp. 101-113.    Accessed July 7, 2007   Ã‚   Hay, Tom. 1997. 87 child abuse and neglect overview paper: in J.A. Caliso and J.S. Milner, â€Å"Childhood physical    abuse, childhood social support and adult child abuse potential,† Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9(1), 1994, pp. 27-44. Accessed July 7, 2007   

Nigeria and South Africa

Introduction The literature review was crucial to this dissertation since it was the major part of the dissertation that examined several secondary sources and reinforced the aim which is to critically analyse and investigate the extent to which physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria compared to South Africa. This dissertation has an adapted version of Handy’s (1994) Product Lifecycle Model because it shows the development of physical infrastructure in regards to accessibility within Nigeria and South Africa.This dissertation also has Butler’s TALC Model (1980) to demonstrate the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa. The dissertation assesses the impacts of the 3 A’s accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services by comparing Nigeria to South Africa. The dissertation answers whether physical infrastructure has positively or negatively influenced Nigeria and South Africa’s tourism industries. This dissertation also includes the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index indicators and the Global Competitiveness index indicators in order to compare the infrastructure rankings in Nigeria and South Africa.There are conclusions which evaluate what the researcher found throughout the dissertation. The recommendations stem from what the researcher discovered and discussed in the conclusions within the dissertation. Aim and Objectives Aim To critically analyse and investigate the extent to which physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Objectives To scrutinise secondary research which discusses the state of physical infrastructure.To assess the impacts of the 3 A’s in Nigeria in comparisons to South Africa. To find out whether physical infrastructure had a positive or negative influence on both countries tourism industries. To critically analyse competitiveness indicators in relation to other data sources. To make several recommendati ons based on the conclusions in this dissertation. Rationale The main purpose of this dissertation is to answer the question- How has physical infrastructure influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria in comparison to South Africa?There are various reasons to why this dissertation is being written. The first reason is there is a gap in academic literature seeing that there is no existing research that compares how physical infrastructure has influenced the tourism industry in Nigeria and South Africa. This could be due to the fact that there are no qualified researchers who have been focusing on documenting such research since researchers may view Nigeria and South Africa as developing economies and would rather conduct research on other countries like England or United States of America.The second reason is that the researcher would be able to explore the aim in great detail through the usage of secondary research and secondary data. Nigeria and South Africa were chosen because bot h countries have significant roles and influence on the African Continent. Kwintessential (2011) states: â€Å"Along with South Africa, Nigeria is considered a super-power in the African continent. † Tourists frequently visit Nigeria and South Africa. In 2009/ 2010, more than forty-nine million tourists travelled to Africa.The top ten African Countries were Morocco which had nine point twenty-nine million tourists, South Africa had eight point nine million tourists and Nigeria had one point forty-one million tourists (TV3news, 2011). In 2011 Nigeria’s new President Goodluck Jonathan commissioned twenty-five trains and also in 2011 South Africa Transport Minister Sibusiso Ndebele introduced a law called Road Transport Management System (RTMS) which was implemented successfully.Secondary data from 2009, 2010 and 2011 was used because information linked to the Access, Amenities and Ancillary Services was available as major events closely linked to Access, Amenities and An cillary Services occurred in Nigeria and South Africa. Contribution Secondary data would be required since quantitative data, such as statistical figures are of great importance because they are needed in order to effectively support the findings in this dissertation.The 3 A’s Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services According to Buhalis (2000) there are six A’s which are Attractions, Accessibility, Amenities, Available Packages, Activities and Ancillary Services however for the purpose of this research, this dissertation will only focus on three A’s which are Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services as tourists take these three A’s into consideration when travelling aboard. Accessibility is essential as it enables tourists to travel to visit numerous places within Nigeria and South Africa.Hall et al (2006) refers to Butler (1980) and Wolfe (1952) who believe that accessibility is important seeing that they acknowledge that when accessibilit y improves an area would experience a growth in tourist numbers. Amenities are vital since tourists need to stay and sleep in accommodation whilst in Nigeria and South Africa. Bhatia (2006) and Hall (2009) agree that accommodation gives tourists the opportunity to spend some time in a destination.Ancillary Services for instance medical facilities like hospitals are important because tourists may need medical assistance so travel insurance is recommended to cover medical emergencies. Cowie (2011) reveals that The Association of British Insurers (ABI) believe there has been an increase in the number of travel insurance claims from holidaymakers particularly holidaymakers over the age of sixty-five. The 3 A’s Attractions, Available Packages and Activities Table The table below discusses why the researcher would not use the other 3 A’sAttractions, Available Packages and Activities which are also part of Buhalis’s Framework. | | | | | | |Attractions |The researcher w ould not use attractions as the researcher does not intend to discuss the various types of | | |attractions that tourists can visit on holiday when in Nigeria and South Africa, furthermore discussing several| | |attractions would not enable the researcher to answer the aim. | | | | | | |Available Packages |The researcher would not use available packages because the researcher’s dissertation is not about the | | |different types of holiday packages available that can be booked for a tourist going to Nigeria and South | | |Africa, therefore information on holiday packages would not be relevant in this dissertation. | | | | | | |Activities |The researcher would not use activities since the researcher’s dissertation does not involve finding out the | | |range of activities that tourists can partake in whilst in Nigeria and South Africa so information about types | | |of activities would be irrelevant in this dissertation. | Table 1 Chapter 1 Literature Review This lite rature review provides definitions of infrastructure, historical influences on infrastructure, definitions of the tourism industry, an overview of Nigeria and South Africa’s tourism industry. Butler’s TALC Model is used to showcase the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa and physical infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa is discussed. Furthermore a theoretical framework is linked to the aim of the dissertation.In addition the literature review also includes Nigeria’s and South Africa’s political backgrounds, African Union agreements that Nigeria and South Africa have agreed to, the fact that South Africa is part of B. R. I. C. Baldauf (2011) reveals that South Africa joined the club of emerging economies in the world. The club is now known as BRICS which is an acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. An overview of infrastructure studies in tourism 1. 1 Defining Infrastructure in the tourism industry Infrastructure ca n be defined as essential elements which people need and can use within a Country, for example accommodation, roads and rail and medical facilities, like clinics and hospitals. Dutt and Ros (2008, p. 01) refer to Ingram & Fay (2005) who discuss: â€Å"In mid-twentieth century, infrastructure was seen as a key determinant of economic development – ‘the commanding heights’ of the economy – and market failures in infrastructure provision were thought to be endemic. † Dutt and Ros (2008, p. 301) also refer to Ingram and Fay (2005) who believe that there are various elements to infrastructure such as telecommunications, airports, roads, piped water, railways, power, ports and sanitation. Dutt and Ros (2008) also cite Hirschman (1958) who agrees that physical infrastructure consists of transportation, power, roads and water. Guttal (2008) agrees with Dutt and Ros (2008) in terms of what infrastructure is however the author adds that parks and shopping ce ntres are part of infrastructure.Guttal (2008) has a negative perspective of infrastructure as Guttal (2008) believes that infrastructure can often have negative impacts which lead to local community’s food and water being damaged or completely destroyed and communities becoming displaced. Mascardo (2008) has a positive view of infrastructure because Mascardo (2008) believes that infrastructure helps to enhance local people’s living conditions. 1. 2 Historical Influences on infrastructure World History (2011) and History (2011) both agree that Nigeria gained Independence from Britain on the 1st of October 1960. About. com (2011) African History (2011) and History Orb. com (2011) both agree that on the 31st of May 1910 South Africa became independent from Britain.South Africa History Online (2011) and Priory World History (2011) agree that in 1652 South Africa had been colonised by the Dutch. Nigeria and South Africa are similar as both countries were British colonies in the past. History (2011) and Wars Of The World (2011) agree that in the Northern part of Nigeria Moslems killed Christians which lead to a civil war and briefly divided the country. This civil war lasted from July 1967 to the 11th January 1970. History (2011) emphasises what happened during the civil war and how the civil war negatively impacted Nigerians by saying that: â€Å"The state lost its oil fields its main source of revenue and without the funds to import food, an estimated one million of its civilians died as a result of severe malnutrition. OnlineNigerian DailyNews (2011) and IRIN humanitarian news and analysis (2011) both agree and recognise that Nigerians have experienced two separate eras of military rule in the country, the first military era was in 1966 to 1970 lead by Gowon and the second military era was lead by Buhari, Babangida and Abacha 1984 to 1999. Robinson (2011) and SouthAfrica. TO (2011) agree that Afrikaner Nationalist came into power in 1948 its main aim was to keep races separated from each other through the implementation racist legislation. Robinson (2011) notes that: â€Å"The implementation of the policy, later referred to as â€Å"separate development,† was made possible by the Population Registration Act of 1950, which put all South Africans into three racial categories: Bantu (black African), white or Coloured (mixed race). Nigeria and South Africa have had corrupt leaders in the past who did not improve their countries physical infrastructure this lead to negative implications on the countries physical infrastructure. In Nigeria military rule had a negative effect on Nigeria as the military leaders caused the physical infrastructure to deteriorate because the leaders did not use the money budgeted for maintenance of the roads to maintain the roads instead the money was used for personal expenses. Online Nigerian News (2011) stated that: â€Å"Years of its rule, brought corruption, injustice, religious and ethn ic intolerance, poverty and misery still abound indicating that military rule largely failed. In South Africa part of the apartheid policies caused separation of facilities, such as people had to use public toilet facilities depending on his or her race. Presently, the Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan has had positive implications on the country’s physical infrastructure particularly the rail infrastructure as part of the President’s Agenda is to restore all structures that would improve the railways in Nigeria. Azubuike (2012) reveals that Nigeria’s Minister of Transport, Senator Idris Umar believes that the rehabilitation of Akere Bridge in Niger State was part of President Goodluck Jonathan's transformation agenda for rail service in Nigeria.South African President Jacob Zuma has also had positive implications on the country’s physical infrastructure like the airport infrastructure since part of the President’s world cup infrastructure plans was to upgrade the facilities in the airports. Lelliott (2010) states that â€Å"President Jacob Zuma officially opens revamped expanded OR Tambo Airport. † Another part of the plan was to build a new airport called King Shaka International Airport in South Africa which has now been fully built and opened in 2010. Province of Kwazulu-natal (2010) reveals that the South African President Jacob Zuma performed the last part of the World Cup infrastructure by opening Durban’s new international airport King Shaka International Airport.South Africa’s improvements in its airports won awards and South Africa needed to have world-class infrastructure in order to host the world cup in 2010. Ongoing repairs to the railways mean that there has been an increase in the number of trains operating in Nigeria. 1. 3 Definition of the tourism industry The tourism industry can be defined as an industry that consists of different components due to the fact that there are various to urism businesses, for instance accommodation businesses, like hotels are where tourists stay throughout their visit in a destination and food businesses, such as restaurants in which tourists can eat local or international cuisines.Lafferty (2001), Planck (2008), Hall (2008) and Ekwere (2010) all believe that the tourism industry includes accommodation establishments, shops, restaurants, travel agencies and tour operators. However Hall (2008, p. 11) identifies the fact that there are different types of accommodation by saying â€Å"Accommodation operators, include hotels, motels, caravan parks and camping grounds. † Parks (2007) indicates that the tourism industry has a diverse range of products and services which include cruise ships, campsites, car rentals, five star hotels and airlines. Parks (2007) reveals that the tourism industry is closely linked to various types of travellers or tourists, for instance business tourists, leisure tourists or people that are visiting fam ily and friends which is sometimes referred to as (VFR’s). 1. Overview of the tourism industry in Nigeria and South Africa Nigeria’s and South Africa’s Tourism Industry has experienced tourism growth through the global economic crisis. Euromonitior International (2011) Media Club South Africa (2012) and South Africa. info (2011) both agree that South Africa’s Tourism Industry was not severely affected by the global economic crisis as there was an increase in the number of leisure tourists who came to watch sports in 2010 compared to 2009. Media Club South Africa (2012) acknowledges that in the first quarter of 2010 South Africa received close to six million tourists arrivals which was an increase of 17. 1% compared to the same time period in 2009.Media Club South Africa (2012) also acknowledges that the second quarter in 2010 showed a 91. 3% rise in tourists from the Americas in the same time period in 2009 because South Africa hosted the World Cup. Eurom onitor International (2010) Nigerian Tribune (2011) World Bank Report (2010) and Champion Newspaper (2011) also both believe that the global economic crisis did not immensely affect Nigeria’s tourism industry seeing that Nigeria had more inbound tourists come to visit the country in 2009 and also in 2010. World Bank Report (2010) states that â€Å"The number of International tourist arrivals in Nigeria was 1,41,4000 in 2009. † Champion Newspaper (2011) believes that in 2010 Nigeria tourist arrivals increased by 8. 8 percent.South Africa’s tourism industry has been more successful at attracting leisure tourists compared to Nigeria’s tourism industry since South Africa promotes and provides leisure tourists with various types of holidays which range from wine tasting to bungee jumping. South Africa Index (2011, p. 10) indicates that fifty-seven percent of tourists visited South Africa for leisure purposes. It could be said that some States in Nigeria want t o attract more leisure tourists. Emelike (2011) reveals that governors, like Liyel Imoke in Calabar, Nigeria are making attempts to encourage leisure tourists to visit Nigeria by holding an annual carnival festival for thirty-two days in December.It could also be said that South Africa is trying to get more business tourists. South Africa. info (2011) indicates that South Africa is targeting business tourists that tend to spend more money compared to leisure tourists when business tourists become leisure tourists that go on tours after they have gone to their business meetings or when business tourists decide to return to the country just to experience the available range of leisure activities. Whereas in the Nigeria tourism industry, cities like Lagos have already experienced a boom in business tourism with a great rise in business tourists as there are many business opportunities available in Nigeria, for example in the retail and hospitality sectors.Jacobson (2011) believes that there has been a high number of business tourists going to Nigeria every month compared to other African Countries and the increase of business tourists in a city like Lagos has lead to a rise in luxury hotels being built in Lagos to meet the needs of the business tourists who tend to come from European Countries. Jacobson (2011) reveals that the immigration office at Murtala International Airport figures show that sixty-five percent of passengers who come on British Airways flights from London to Lagos between Mondays to Saturdays are in Lagos for business purposes. However some authors believe that Nigeria’s tourism industry is not as developed as it should be when taking into consideration the country’s size, abundance of areas of natural beauty and culture.Encyclopaedia of the Nations (2011) and Emelike (2010) agree that the Nigeria tourism industry is currently operating below its potential. Encyclopaedia of the Nations (2011) reinforces this by saying: â€Å"Tou rism in Nigeria is highly undeveloped, considering the West African nation's available tourist resources: land, climate, vegetation, people and their festivals, abundant art treasures, national monuments, ports, traditional sports, and music. † The World Travel Tourism Council had positive projections for Nigeria and South Africa in terms of how the travel and tourism industries would increase the countries GDP. World Travel Tourism Council (2011) believes that by 2021 Nigeria’s travel and tourism industry would rise by 1. % and South Africa’s industry would rise by 5. 1% in contribution to the GDP. Nigeria and South Africa on the Butler’s (1980) TALC Model The diagram below is based on Butler’s TALC Model which exhibits the development of tourism in Nigeria and South Africa. Figure 1 6 3. 9 1. 4 656,000 0 SOURCE: Butler (1980) Butler’s TALC Model above illustrates that over time the number of tourists travelling to Nigeria and South Africa i ncreased so both countries went from the Exploration Stage to the Involvement Stage in which local people became more involved in the tourism businesses which changed Nigeria’s and South Africa’s environment to the Development Stage.The changes at the Development Stage encouraged foreign tourism business to invest in both countries and this lead to the Consolidation Stage, for example Hilton opened branches in Abuja, Nigeria and Cape Town, South Africa. southafrica. info (2011) revealed that the newly opened Hilton Cape Town Hotel is the third Hilton Hotel in South Africa. The Consolidation Stage for Nigeria and South Africa was positive since there was investment in both countries tourism industries however the Consolidation Stage went into the Decline Stage due to conflicts in Jos, Nigeria but in South Africa the Consolidation Stage went to the Rejuvenation Stage because local tourism businesses are re-investing and making improvements to their businesses. Applying N igeria to Butler’s TALC ModelStage 1: Exploration The Exploration Stage is the stage in which tourists originally started visiting Nigeria. The World Group (2011) indicates that the first international tourists came to Nigeria in 1995 and the total number of international tourists in 1995 was 656,000. Stage 2: Involvement The Involvement Stage is when there was an increase of tourists to Nigeria and local people started businesses within the tourism industry. Tassiopoulos (2009) agrees with William (2009) who refers to Cohen (1972, p. 8) who says that: â€Å"Some local residents will react to the economic opportunities by providing basic facilities for tourists (such as accommodation). † Stage 3: Development The Development Stage is a stage that has caused changes to the physical environment in Nigeria since foreign companies, such as luxury hotels have set up their businesses. Wall et al (2006) and Huybers (2007) believe that there are evident changes to the physica l appearance of the area and local facilities may stop operating if they are unable to compete with new-modern-up-to- date facilities.Stage 4: Consolidation The Consolidation Stage refers to the stage whereby famous businesses now have new branches and franchises to supply the tourists with products and services they want and are use to back in their countries of origin. Hospitality Net (2010) indicates that Best Western opened a new branch called The Best Western Island Beach Hotel in Lagos, Nigeria. Talking Retail (2010) reveals that Spar has entered the Nigerian retail sector by opening a Spar supermarket in a new shopping centre in Lekki-Ajah which is an emerging area of Lagos.Stage 6: Decline The Decline Stage is evident in a city called Jos in Northern Nigeria that was once popular and visited by many tourists. Iyanu (2011) discusses Jos and indicates that many years ago the city was given the slogan ‘The home of Peace and Tourism’ as it could boost of a city tha t was full of tranquillity and had well-known attractions which inbound and outbound tourist visited. However there has been a dramatic decline in the number of tourists to the city throughout 2011due to religious conflicts. Walker (2011) talks about the conflicts in Jos and believes that the conflicts mostly stems from Muslims settlers feeling marginalised by the indigenous Christians.Applying South Africa to Butler’s TALC Model Stage 1: Exploration The Exploration Stage refers to the stage when tourists initially started coming to South Africa. South info (2011) reveals that International tourists began visiting South Africa after Apartheid in 1994 and the total number of International tourists that visited South Africa was 3. 9 million. Stage 2: Involvement The Involvement Stage is when there was a rise in tourists coming to South Africa so the indigenous people got involved in the tourism sector.Dale (2006) and Disgupta (2011) agree that Indigenous people see business op portunities in the tourism industry so they decide to open businesses that offer facilities for the tourists, for instance guest houses and restaurants. Stage 3: Development The Development Stage has occurred as more multi-national companies came into South Africa to establish their accommodation establishments, man-made or purpose-built attractions. Dale (2006) and Devashish (2011) believe that the multi-national companies such as hotels could take over the accommodation sector in a destination because the local hotels cannot compete with them. Stage 4: ConsolidationThe Consolidation Stage relates to well-known businesses setting up to franchise and cater to the continuous inflow of tourists to South Africa. Ivanovic (2009, p. 202) discusses the consolidation stage in South Africa by saying that: â€Å"In this stage the major franchises in food, hotel and retail chains enter the market, such as McDonalds, Hilton and Dolce and Gabbana. † Stage 6: Rejuvenation The Rejuvenatio n Stage is the stage in which local businesses in South Africa have decided to invest in their businesses by spending more money to upgrade and increase the number of attractions offered to tourists. Bruyn (2009, p. 03) talks about Durban Beachfront in Durban, South Africa and states that: â€Å"Durban Beachfront has rejuvenation projects such as the R21. 5 million ($ 3. 2 million) Wilson’s Wharf, uShaka Marine World Theme Park. † Theoretical Framework The diagram below is an adapted version of Handy’s (1994) Product Lifecycle Model that illustrates the different types of transportation in Nigeria and South Africa. Transportation in Nigeria and South Africa 650 450 250 50 40 30 20 0 The adapted model above indicates that the trains in South Africa started operating in 1860 and in Nigeria the trains starting operating in 1902.In South Africa the first international flights disembarked in 1945 and in Nigeria the first international flights flew in 1958. Lawal (20 11) agrees with Nigeria’s The International Civil Aviation Organisation report that reveals 30 million flights arrived in Nigeria. Irwin (2011) believes South Africa’s airport improvements enabled 40 million passengers to come on flights into South Africa. There is a lack of records in regards to how many railway passengers travelled seeing that records were mainly noted later on in the twentieth century. Nigeria’s recorded figures start from 1964 which showed that 11. 2 million passengers travelled by rail, in 1974 4. 3 million, 1978 6. million, in 1984 Nigeria reached its peak in terms of passenger numbers, then went down to 3 million in 1991, 1. 6 million passengers in 2003 but in 2009 and 2010 the number of railway passengers grew again. South Africa’s recorded figures started in 1992 and exhibited that there were 286 million railway passenger, 2007 13. 8 million, then went up to 646 million and declined to 520 million railway passengers in 2010. Phys ical Infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa 1. 5 Airports Both Akpan (2011) and Ayodele (2011) believe Nigeria’s airports in major cities in Nigeria are in a dreadful condition.Ayodele (2011) reinforces this by explaining how passengers were affected when there was a power cut at Lagos Airport by stating: â€Å"On May 9, the terminal building was filled to the brim with passengers who were unable to access their luggage because the outage had affected the conveyor belt which had already aged. † Eze (2011) and Daily Trust (2011) both agree that Murtala Muhammed Airport in Lagos was built thirty-two years ago, the airport was originally built to accommodate one million passengers however the airport currently reaches twelve million passengers and this has had a negative impact on the facilities in the airport.Eze (2011) discusses displeasure in the state of Nigerian airports but mainly focused on the Murtala Muhammed International Airport (MMIA) Lagos and recognise s the fact that the airport is a gateway into the country and views the facilities as a shame by saying â€Å"The Murtala Muhammed International Airport (MMIA) Lagos, in particular have deteriorated to the extent they have become an embarrassment. † Afrique Avenir (2011) acknowledges that The Managing Director of Skyway Aviation Handling Company Limited, Lagos, Mr. Isaac Orulagbagbe has criticised the infrastructure in Nigerian airports. Afrique Avenir (2011) agrees with Mr Orulagbagbe who believes that the federal government needs to improve the infrastructure in Murtala Mohammed International Airport because the airport is full to its capacity. However Harding (2011) talks about South Africa infrastructure in the airport which showed that the infrastructure was impressive as South Africa won awards based on the county’s airports.South African Government Information (2011) notes a statement from Ms Hlahla, ACSA who agrees with Claude Harding by saying: â€Å"Current airport infrastructure in South Africa has been recognised as being of world class standard. † Harding (2011) and SouthAfrica (2011) both give explanations of the reasons to why Tambo Airport which is also known as Johannesburg International Airport was voted the second most improved. Tambo Airport won since it provides adequate facilities for seventeen million passengers each year, the building was expanded and the airport plays a significant role in the city’s economy. Nkosi (2011) and Skytrax (2011) both discuss Cape Town International Airport winning awards.On one hand Nkosi (2011) explains the factors that contributed to Cape Town International Airport getting an award for the best Airport in Africa by referring to Airports Council  International survey which indicated that Cape Town International Airport had high scores in terms of the level of cleanliness in the washrooms and ease of passengers being about get trolleys and find car parking spaces. On the other hand Skytrax (2011) also explains that Cape Town International Airport got an award for Staff Service by stating: â€Å"Cape Town International Airport wins the Staff Service Excellence Award for Airports in Africa, as passengers recognise the high quality of front-line service delivery. † 1. 6 RoadsBoth Abubakar (2011) and Ezekiel (2011) believe the roads in Nigeria are in an appalling state and this has caused a significant number of car accidents and deaths. BluePrint (2011) refers to The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) who say: â€Å"There were a total of 20,910 road accidents or crashes in 2010 and the total mortality or deaths caused by these accidents were 6,853. This means that 6, 853 Nigerians lost their lives to accidents, caused by bad roads across the country. † Ezekiel (2011) and Samade (2011) both indicate the factors that lead to the poor state of the roads in Nigeria and agrees with the Minister of Transportation Mrs.Diezani Alison-Madueke that the present conditions of roads in Nigeria are a result of the lack of maintenance culture. Southafricagoodnews (2011) and SustainableTransport&Mobility (2011) agree that 50% of the roads are in a terrible state. Arizona Auto Accident Attorney News (2011) confirms this by saying: â€Å"The 2010 December/January festive season in South Africa resulted in over 1500 deaths as a result of accidents on the road and recent statistics indicate that an average of 36 people die on South Africa roads on an average day. † The Transport Minister took action and made a road safety law in 2011 which helped to decrease the number of deaths due to bad roads. allAfrica. om (2011) Transport Minister Sibusiso Ndebele has commended the road transport industry for their efforts in implementing the Road Transport Management System (RTMS) to reduce road deaths. SustainableTransport&Mobility (2011) also discusses the factors that have contributed to the state of the roads in South Africa and agrees with The South African Road Federation President Mutshutshu  Nxumalo that the current state of roads in South Africa are due to poor management skills and also a poor maintenance culture. 1. 7 Rail Sunday (2011) and ThisDayLive (2011) agree that Nigeria’s railways have been neglected but ThisDayLive (2011) acknowledges the fact that the railways are improving as new trains were acquired stating that: The nation’s comatose rail system appears to be roaring back to life with the recent commissioning of the newly acquired 25 modern locomotive engines belonging to the Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC) by President Goodluck Jonathan. † Euromonitor International (2011) supports the fact that there are new trains with figures that show there has been an increase in the number of passengers travelling by train in Nigeria seeing that 1. 9 million passengers travelled on the train in 2009 and 2. 1 million passengers travelled by train in 2010. However there are arguments ab out the state of South Africa’s railways. Roberts (2011) states that: â€Å"The best description of the current (201l) state of railway preservation in the country was probably ‘parlous'. †BRICS (2011) reinforces this with figures that illustrate passengers traffic by railway decreased in 2009 to 644 million passengers and further declined in 2010 to 520 million passengers, but Euromonitor International (2011) disagrees with the figures and shows an increase in passengers carried by rail. African Online News (2011) supports Euromonitor International (2011) by stating that â€Å"The biggest growth came from a great rise in the usage of rail services. † Furthermore Railways Africa (2011) reveals that train accidents increased as there were eight train accidents between April 2010 and March 2011. 1. 8 Accommodation Punch (2011) notes why hotels are expensive and agrees with the Managing Director of Thornberry Africa, Mr Church who believes that in Nigeria the hotel rooms are expensive. This is due to the fact that hotels have high operating costs which include generating their own electricity supply. Emelike. 2011) refers to Ajonumah who believes that in Nigeria international hotels, for instance Sheraton Lagos Hotel have 85 percent+ occupancy rate due to the fact that business tourists and expatriates continuously occupy the hotel rooms. Lenhart (2011) discusses costs of staying in hotels and agrees with Mr Anderson international marketing director for Sun International, a South Africa-based hotel company who believes that hotel room prices in cities like Cape Town, South Africa are reducing with better rates and more availability. Mintel (2011) acknowledges that South Africa has different accommodations from guesthouses to five-star hotels. SouthAfrica. nfo (2011) agrees with Mintel (2011) and states: â€Å"These hotels include the Cape Grace, Arabella Sheraton Grand, Table Bay and Mount Nelson hotels in Cape Town; the Grande Roche i n Paarl outside Cape Town; The Plettenberg on the Western Cape Garden Route; and the Grace in Rosebank, Michelangelo, Saxon and Westcliff hotels in Johannesburg. † Africa Point. com Online Travel Agent (2011) recognises that Nigeria also has a wide variety of accommodation ranging from budget to luxury hotels. However Africa Point. com Online Travel Agent (2011) and Maps of World (2011) both agree that most of the luxury hotels with international standards are situated in Lagos and Abuja.Maps of World (2011) reinforces that this by mentioning two well-known luxury hotels in Lagos – Eko Hotels and Suites  and Sofitel Lagos Moorhouse Ikoyi Hotel. 1. 9 Medical Facilities Health of Nations (2011), Travel. State. Gov (2011) and Ngex (2011) all agree that government medical facilities are lacking in terms of modern medical equipment and medications however Ngex (2011) notes doctors and hospitals tend to ask patients for cash before medical treatment is given. Allianz (2011) , Immigration South Africa (2011) and South Africa (2011) also agree that medical facilities in South Africa are great particularly in private hospitals. The nurses and general practitioners train in the top medical schools in South Africa.Connell (2011) and Immigration South Africa (2011) also acknowledge that some international tourists only visit South Africa to receive specific medical treatment to prevent them from waiting in long queues in their country or the medical treatment is less expensive compared to their country of origin. Nigeria and South Africa have agreed to abide by African Union agreements such as the AU Constitutive Act (2002). South Africa being a part of B. R. I. C this is economically beneficial to the country. South Africa (2011) refers to the International Relations and Cooperation Minister Maite Nkoane-Mashabane, who was briefing journalists in Pretoria last Tuesday and said: â€Å"South Africa would both benefit from and contribute to the grouping's am bitious goal of expanding inter-trade amongst BRICS countries to US$400-billion to $500-billion by the year 2015. †It could be said that as a result of reviewing literature the researcher has increased knowledge about what physical infrastructure actually consists of, an insight into how important infrastructure is to a country and the components that make-up the tourism industry. It could also be said that Nigeria’s and South Africa’s political background has affected the countries positively, negatively and has had implications on the countries physical infrastructure. On one hand both countries experienced the happiness of becoming independent from Britain but on the other hand not long after independence Nigeria was ruled by the military leader General Yakubu Gowon and South Africa was ruled by the apartheid leader Pieter Willem Botha. Presently Nigeria and South Africa have elected Democratic Presidents which are Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan in Niger ia and South African President Jacob Zuma.In addition it could be argued that some of the existing differences between Nigeria and South Africa currently exist as a result of how much colonisation has affected both nations differently. It could be said that the western world has had a stronger influence on South African culture compared to Nigerian culture because South Africa was colonised by two European countries Britain and The Netherlands this is evident through the fact that many South Africans speak Afrikaans which stems from the Dutch language and several cities in South Africa have Dutch names for example Johannesburg and Bloomberg whereas the majority of states and cities in Nigeria have Nigerian names and a high percentage of Nigerians speak at least one Nigerian language.Furthermore another difference is that conflicts in Nigeria stemmed from disagreements between different ethnic groups whereas in South Africa conflict stemmed from an unfair system of racial segregation called apartheid imposed by the whites against blacks. Interestingly both countries share a political similarity, for example Nigeria and South Africa had civilian rule as the democratic presidents who were elected in the1990’s both men had originally been in prison and not long after being released from prison elections took place and the Nigerian President was Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999 and the South African President was Nelson Mandela in 1994. Literature Review Matrix Author |Year |Title |Journal |Relevant Content |Useful references the | | | | | | |author makes | |Buhalis |2000 | |Tourism Management |* Buhalis’s Framework | | |Butler |2009 | |Elsevier |* Butler’s (1980) TALC |Agarwal and Baum | |Butler |2006 |Tourism Area Life Cycle: | |* Handy’s Product Life Cycle |Handy | | | |Conceptual and theoretical| | | | | | |issues | | | | |Butler |1980 | |Canadian Geographer |* Butler’s (1980) TALC Model | | |Connell |2011 |Medical Tourism | |*People are going to South Africa for Cosmetic | | | | | | |Surgery | | |Dutt & Ros |2008 |International Handbook of | |History & Definition of physical Infrastructure |Ingram & Fay Hirschman | | |Development Economics | | | | |Guffery & Almont |2009 |Essentials of Business | |* Secondary Research | | | | |Communication | | | | |Guttal |2008 |IFI’s Tourism Perspectives| |* Definition and negative impacts of Physical | | | | |and Debates | |Infrastructure | | |Hall and Williams |2008 |Tourism and Innovation | |* History of Tourism Industry |Lofgren | |Mascardo |2008 |Building Community | |* Positive impacts of Physical Infrastructure | | | | |Capacity for Tourism | | | | | | |Development | | | | |Parks |2007 |Contemporary Sport | |* Definition of the Tourism Industry | | | | |Management | | | |The impacts of the 3 A’s in Nigeria in comparisons to South Africa |The impacts of the 3 A’s |Nigeria and South Africa | | | | |Accessibility |It is evident that accessibility ha s had a major impact in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Accessibility is | |(Roads) |very poor an indication of this is the fact that the numbers of deaths are increasing in Nigeria every year as a | | |result of car accidents and no action is being taken to reduce accidents which has led to so many people’s | | |deaths. | | | | |Amenities |It is also evident that amenities have had a major impact in Nigeria and South Africa.Amenities for example | |(Hotels) |hotels are diverse in both countries and both African Countries are able to cater to the different needs and | | |wants of business tourists and leisure tourists that visit the two African Nations however there is a lack of | | |awareness in regards to the less expensive accommodations available in Nigeria. | | | | |Ancillary Services |It is very clear that ancillary services have had a greater impact in Nigeria compared to South Africa.Ancillary| |(Hospitals) |Services for instance hospitals are extremely poor as the y are not adequately equipped whereas in South Africa | | |many people use the ancillary services for example South African surgeons perform cosmetic surgeries in South | | |African hospitals on patients from around the world. | The table below assesses the impacts of the 3 A’s accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary Services in Nigeria compared to South Africa. Table 2 Has Physical infrastructure had a positive or negative influence on both countries tourism industries? AirportsInterestingly even though airport infrastructure is in a terrible state in Nigeria it has not had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry as Nigerian Airports, for example Murtala Muhammed International Airport in Lagos received sixty-five percent of passengers who were business tourists on British Airways Flights (page 12, Jacobson, 2011). Airport infrastructure had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry since its improvements lead to being chosen to hold the world cup which attracted leisure tourists. Roads Road infrastructure had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry and South Africa’s tourism industry because domestic tourists or people visiting friends and family (VFR’s) have been involved in car accidents which have consequently lead to their deaths.Rail Rail infrastructure had a positive influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry subsequently there has been a rise in people travelling on the trains. Rail infrastructure had a negative influence on South Africa’s tourism industry as a result there has been a decrease in people travelling by trains. Accommodation Hotels had a positive influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry since it brings in money into Nigeria when business tourists pay to stay in Nigerian hotels, for example Eko Hotels and Suites however the prices of hotel rooms has a negative influence because ultimately tourists pay extreme prices to cover the operating costs of the hotels.Hotels had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry because it also brings more capital into South Africa as leisure tourists and business tourists can also pay to stay in hotels that have reasonably-priced hotel rooms that meet their needs and budgets, for instance business tourists can go to Table Bay Hotel in Cape Town, South Africa. Medical Facilities The current infrastructure had a negative influence on Nigeria’s tourism industry since people like domestic tourists may go to a hospital and cannot get medication or there is no modern medical equipment available if they needed to have an operation. The current infrastructure had a positive influence on South Africa’s tourism industry because more international tourists come to South Africa for cosmetic surgery (Page 24,Connell,2011).Chapter 2 Methodology 2. 1 Choice of research design Secondary research was chosen instead of primary research because the secondary research methods enabled the aim to be achieved more effectively due to the fact that there was so much relevant secondary research that was available. The researcher could independently get secondary research as soon as possible since secondary sources can be accessed online. Guffery et al (2009, p. 256) states that â€Å"Many writers turn to them first because they are fast,  easy to use and available online. † There was also control since decisions were made in terms of what information was included or excluded. Issue |Inclusion |Exclusion | |The year of publishing – academic materials: |The researcher included Journal articles that were |The researcher did not include any Journals which were | |Academic Journals |published since year 2000 but one of the journal |published forty years ago seeing that it would have been | | |articles was published in 1980 it had to be used |too old and not have the current up-date information that| | |because Butler’s TALC Model (1980) M odel had |the researcher could utilise in the dissertation. | | |essential information that was needed in the | | | |dissertation. | |The year of Publishing – Textbooks |The researcher included textbooks that have |The researcher did not use textbooks that were published | | |published appropriate information that could be |in the 1980’s and 1990’s because there were up-to-date | | |linked to the aim and objectives of the |books available. | | |dissertation, for instance information about the | | | |tourism industry. | |The year of Publishing – News Websites |The researcher included News websites that had |The researcher excluded News websites that had articles | | |articles which were published in the past three |published in 2008 since there was less information about | | |years because there was relevant contemporary |Nigeria’s infrastructure compared to South Africa’s | | |information available on the news websites. infrastruc ture in 2008 so the researcher choose to avoid | | | |having uneven comparisons when discussing Nigeria and | | | |South Africa. | Inclusion/Exclusion Matrix Table Primary research would involve travelling to Nigeria and South Africa, which would have been very time consuming as this dissertation has a specific deadline and sufficient information may not have been collected before the deadline this would negatively affect the dissertation. The researcher choose to use contemporary research since it is up-to-date information.The researcher did not use information published in 2008 because there was less relevant information about Nigeria’s physical infrastructure compared to South Africa’s physical infrastructure in 2008 so the researcher would not have be able to effectively meet the aim or fairly compare Nigeria to South Africa. The secondary research included the usage of relevant academic materials, for example Mintel Reports and the Global Market Information Data base published by Euromonitor International which are market research reports from the academic website Athens. Mintel and Euromonitor International were used to attain essential information like secondary data. For instance statistical data which was found by using keywords like rail passengers and accommodation into the search engines. The other secondary esearch was done by only extracting important information such as applicable quotes, from reading appropriate Nigerian Newspapers, for instance ThisDayLive, Daily Trust, Punch and BluePrint and suitable South African News websites, for example Southafricagoodnews, SouthAfrica and African websites such as Africa Online News and Afrique Avenir. However the researcher is aware that newspapers and websites can be potentially biased. The researcher maintained reliability relevance with newspapers by using newspaper articles that criticised the infrastructure rather than pretending that the infrastructure was perfect. The researcher al so used relevant textbooks and academic journals such as Tourism Management because academic journals are not biased.In addition The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index was utilised in order to obtain statistical data to measure infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa. The researcher compared figures from 2009 and 2011. Furthermore the researcher also compared The Travel & Tourism Competitive Index indicators with The Global Competitiveness Index indicators in 2009 and 2011. 2. 2 Construction of the method Assessment Schematic |Authors claim |Position of the |Is the Author |Is the Authors claim accepted? | | |Author |biased? | |Ime Akpan (2011) Poor obsolete facilities in airports in Nigeria |Writer |yes |Yes as the claim is based on Nigeria’s Aviation Minister’s | | | | |statement. | |Claude Harding (2011) South Africa has great airports. |Writer |No |Yes since the claim is based on South Africa winning Skytrax 2011 | | | | |World Airport Awards. |Toba Agbo ola (2011) high operating costs in restaurants. |Writer |No |Yes because the claim is based on the statement by the Nigerian | | | | |restaurant Tantalizers. | |BRICS (2011) Less people are travelling by rail in South Africa. | |No |Yes the claim comes from a BRICS report. | |Punch (2011) It is costly to stay in hotels in Nigeria. | |No |Yes the claim is based on The Managing Director of Thornberry | | | | |Africa, Mr.David Church statement who is in the hospitality | | | | |industry high hotel prices caused by high running costs. | |Mintel (2011) South Africa has great a variety of hotels to suit | |No |Yes since the claim is based on an analysis of the accommodation | |different budgets. | | |sector in South Africa. | |Bongani Nkosi (2011) Cape Town International Airport best airport |Writer |No |Yes because the claim is based upon Airports Council  International| |in Africa. | | |survey. | |Afrique Avenir (2011) Nigeria airports are in a terrible state. | |Yes the claim is ba sed upon The Managing Director of Skyway | | | | |Aviation Handling Company Limited statement. | The assessment schematic above was constructed to exhibit what authors have said, state the authors position, establish whether the authors has written in a biased manner and whether the researcher of this dissertation accepts what the authors have claimed. 2. 3 Sample To select the literature, the researcher would use contemporary literature that reveals significant information about Accessibility, Amenities and Ancillary in Nigeria and South Africa. Non-probability sampling methods like snowball sampling would not be used the researcher ould utilise the cluster sampling probability sampling method since it is the most suitable method as the researcher could apply the method seeing that this type of probability sampling method tends to be used when quantitative data is being collected. Furthermore the researcher used figures from The Travel & Tourism Competitive Index that state the ra nkings and different elements of physical infrastructure in Nigeria and South Africa. United Nations World Food Program Office (2011) reveals that Probability sampling is mostly utilised during quantitative data collection methods. The fundamental reason for probability sampling is to split a study into different categories like children and adults when studying population. 2. Procedure Secondary data which is under specific pillars were selected from the Travel & Tourism Competitive Index from the 2009 and 2011 in the World Economic Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report for Nigeria and South Africa because of its relevance to this dissertation seeing that it enabled the researcher to meet the fourth objective as this included quality of the airport infrastructure which comes under 6th pillar: Airport transport infrastructure, quality of roads, quality of rail infrastructure which is under the 7th pillar: Ground transport infrastructure, hotel rooms which comes under the 8th pill ar: Tourism infrastructure and Hospital beds which is under the 4th pillar: Health and hygiene.The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index rankings from the 2009 and 2011were compared with The Global Competitiveness Index rankings in 2009 and 2011. 2. 5 Plan for Data Analysis The secondary data would be used to meet the 4th objective. The analysis includes secondary data from the Travel and Tourism competitive index which would be in a table format seeing that it is an easy format for the reader to understand the data and the findings from the data. The analysis would also evaluate the findings that link back to the literature review, Butler’s (1980) TALC Model and the Theoretical Framework.Chapter 3 Discussion and Analysis This chapter discusses and analyses the findings from the indexes and the literature review. The table below illustrates where Nigeria’s and South Africa’s airports, roads, rail, hotel rooms and hospital beds ranks are positioned out of one hu ndred and thirty-three countries in 2009 and 2011 from The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index and also has the findings about the infrastructure. The higher the ranking the worse the level of the country’s infrastructure. Nigeria and South Africa’s rankings on The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index |Nigeria |South Africa | Travel and Tourism |2009 |2011 |2009 |2011 |Findings from the infrastructure rankings | |Competitiveness Index | | | | | | |Airport Transport Infrastructure | | | | |On one hand the quality of the airport infrastructure rank in Nigeria has | | | | | | |dramatically increased which clearly indicated that the airport infrastructure in| |Quality of air transport | | | | |Nigeria has deteriorated between 2009 and 2011. | |infrastr

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Managing across culture - Essay Example Being the Management Consultant for the telecommunications company which is planning to take its business to the international level and market; it becomes very important to make a thorough study about the available literatures on the different challenges that a company faces on a foreign soil and make recommendations accordingly. During the initial study, the team has found a number of possible challenges that could pose a threat to the smooth internationalisation of the company. Among the several challenges â€Å"culture shock and poor adjustment† seems to have the greater potential for disturbing the smooth internationalisation of the company. The first part or Part One of this research paper discusses the different available literatures and their observations. 1.2: Definition of â€Å"Culture† According to Adler (2008) culture can be defined as an integrated system of behavior among the human beings which takes into consideration the thoughts, beliefs, languages, co mmunications, customs and values, mannerisms of ethnic, religious, racial or social groups of people and the ability of those very people in conveying the same attitude their succeeding generations. Thus, a lot of elements joins together to form a specific culture for a group of people. From the very elements, it could be understood that culture is not a day’s process or a matter of a few months but instead culmination of habits and attitudes over a prolonged period of time and as result of multiple behavioral elements or factors (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1998). 1.3: Relation between Culture and Working Attitude According to the study and observations made by Berry, et al (2002) a human being is highly influenced by the culture to which he or she has been raised up in. As observed by Browaeys and Price (2008), culture is a system of behavior consisting of varied elements that shapes up their life and other activities associated with their lives. The culture of an individual affe cts the psychology, that is, the thought process. The psychology in turn decides the behavior, attitude and goal of an individual’s life, the likes and dislikes, and even most importantly, their working attitude. The findings of Buchanan and Huczynski (2004) in their study indicate this very fact. An individual is highly influenced by the culture to which he or she belongs. It is so because it impacts an individual from a very tender age, during the very basic years of an individual when one’s beliefs, emotions, outlook and attitude is at the nascent stage. Culture moulds the attitude of an individual at every stage, when an individual forms their attitudes towards their family, education and institutional life, their personal circles, and their attitude towards work. Culture has a greater role to play in shaping the attitude towards work of an individual. Burnes (2000) observe that different cultural factors have been influencing the communication skills and practices of the individuals in the workplace and working atmosphere for a long time. The perception of work and work pressure is also dependent on an individual’s attitude towards work. For instance, one who has been surrounded by a strong working culture will be highly motivated to work hard, turn the most impossible task into reality, the individual will not give up in any case. On the other hand an individual who has been experiencing a lethargic working culture w

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The role of entrepenurship in the 1860-1900 and the role of technolgy in railroads and government influence and tariff policys a - Essay Example The demand for steel and oil hit an all time high. This industry had very renowned personalities (Link and Susannah 34). These included John D. Rockefeller who dealt in oil and Andrew Carnegie, who dealt in steel. These individuals went by the name of robber barons because people believed that they got their wealth through unscrupulous business deals. It is Gilded Age because of the notable fortunes realized in the period and people’s improved level of affordability. It is during Gilded Age that the United States shifted from an agricultural society to an urban industrial society. This was as a result of massive movement of people to cities after the Civil War. In 1860, only twenty percent of people in the U.S.A lived in cities. This number grew to forty percent in 1900. Cities provided a place of adventure for young people who left the countryside to go to towns and cities. This heightened modernization in the U.S.A as more skyscrapers came up department stores emerged and, t elephone and electric lamps installed. Consumerism and middle classes emerged as a result of industrialization and immigration into cities (Meyer 61). Technology and expansion of railroad Railroad was perhaps the single most important factor that transformed industrial cities in the West in the 1800s. The advanced technology of the time enabled the building of railroads that helped ease transportation around the U.S.A and made travelling safe and cheap. Transcontinental lines helped move grain, people, ore, cattle, and equipment to and from across the Midwest. Railroad passed through Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada and the fertile areas of California and Oregon (Link and Susannah 35). The building of railroads transport transformed the landscape of the West. Bison travelled across the Great Plains to provide food and clothing to Native American tribes. Railroads destroyed Bison’s habitat and brought sport hunters to their environment. Americans killed many Bison and by 1885, o nly 1,000 Bison survived. There were other things that contributed to the expansion of railroads in the U.S.A. One important factor was the Civil War. The Civil War caused an increase in U.S.A’s industrial production leaving it among the world’s leading industrial producers in the 1890. The war also accelerated the growth of corporations as it demanded more consumer goods and services. The growth and popularity of money capital also contributed greatly to the expansion of railroads as it attracted foreign investors into American economy. Consequently, more people increased their investment in capitalist ventures. Government support of business also had an impact on the growth of railroads in America (Meyer 62). The government donated enormous land to railroad companies for the expansion of railroad transport. Pullman sleeper car complemented the development of railroad transport by increasing railroad passengers’ comfort. Double sets of tracks took the place of a single set track system. This enabled two-way rail traffic with snarl-up. Iron rails gave way to steel rails that could handle heavy weight loads. The development of locomotive tenders enabled the use of coal to power trains. Coal took the place of wood as it was more efficient than wood. Coal power cut on the number of times trains had to stop and refuel (Link and Susannah 36). After Westinghouse got patent rights for air brakes, mechanical brakes paved the way for air brakes. Air brakes allowed for

Technology Forecast Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Technology Forecast - Research Paper Example In this prototype that was built by the scientists, the neurons are linked together in a way that makes them appear and operate like the brain cells. When data is then fed into the assembly, the neurons are able to work in a parallel manner in solving the problem. This is unlike the normal working in various devices which is usually non parallel. Due to the ability of the assembly to function in a parallel manner it can be used to solve complex computing problems (Schmuker, Pfeil &. Nawrot, 2014). According to Schmuker, Pfeil &. Nawrot (2014) the assembly that was made is able to classify data with different features and even recognizes data which is hand written. Moreover, it was able to distinguish plant species on the basis of flowering characteristics. This is facilitated by the parallel working of the neurons. Schmuker, Pfeil &. Nawrot (2014) indicates that the design of the network architecture was based and inspired by the nervous system of insects that processes odor. The system is highly optimized for processing complex chemicals in a parallel manner. The chip with neurons that was used in the study by the scientists was manufactured by the Kirchhoff Institute for Physics in Heidelberg University. In order to understand the working of the network architecture that was developed by these scientists, it is imperative to first understand the characteristics of silicon neurons as they are the building blocks that were used it the new architecture. According to Merolla et al. (2011) silicon neurons are made by combining the principles of silicon engineering with the neuron physiological principle. When this is done an analog integrated circuit is produced. The analog circuit that is produced possesses functional characteristics similar to those of the human nerve cells (Indiveri, Chicca & Douglas, 2009). The silicon neuron is therefore able to effectively control the discharge and dynamics of the ions in a similar way that

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Consumer Behaviour and Retail Marketing Strategy - Essay Example Consumer behaviour refers to the overall attitude, preference, intention as well as the decision made by a consumer concerning the purchase of products or services in the market. The study of consumer behaviour aims at establishing the path that consumers follow in arriving at the decision to buy or not to buy a particular product from a range of similar products available in the market (Strack, Werth & Deutsch 2006). This knowledge is very important for any marketer in formulating the marketing strategy of his products and be able to predict what will happen in the future especially in a market environment chareacterised by stiff competition. This research will first demonstrate a clear understanding of consumer buying process and then propose a retail marketing strategy based on the theories of consumer behaviour. There are various factors that influence the decision making process of consumers ranging from internal, external, individual as well as environmental. However, these factors generally fall into three major classes; sociological, behavioural and economic factors (Strack, Werth & Deutsch 2006). It is very vital for any marketer to have a good knowledge of all these determinants to be able to predict the performance of his products in the market before introduction. Therefore, the best marketing strategy will come after a good understanding of the factors that influence consumers to buy, since the marketer will then know whether his products possess the characteristics that will influence consumers to buy his products or not. This refers to the influence of the members of the family, influence from group references and leaders opinions, influence from the social class as well as the culture of the people on the buying behaviour of consumers (Moutinho 1987). It is common knowledge that in every family there is the idea of specialisation and every family

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Response paper about Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Imperial Ambassador at Constantinople, - Essay Example o introduced both the lilac, which generally earned acceptance to the West, and tulip due to his fascination for herbalism local flora according to scholarly records. Based on the scholars, it is interesting to note how Busbecq demonstrated a picture of the international politics at the time through the Turkish letters, especially detailing the relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire which is claimed to be given negligible focus in history courses. Hence, Busbecq’s letters are regarded as amply useful as a firsthand reliable source in studying the Western Civilization or European history for students in higher undergraduate levels. Since the inner workings of 16th century European diplomacy are also dealt with, a reader would essentially perceive the historical and personal insights of the Flemish author regarding the culture and society of the great empire of the east. Such undertakings as Busbecq’s become noteworthy of being judged as open-mindedly capable in ridding itself of inevitable biases so as to create a better illustration of the truth which the audience should be left mostly to evaluate. As a polymath who had been able to obtain remarkable education via Europe’s erudite capitals, Busbecq managed to exhibit in the Turkish letters, forwarded to the knowledge of a fellow diplomat at Hungary, the potential to respond to the heightening tensions between the Ottomans and Ferdinand of Habsburg between 1555 and 1562. By chronicling the encounters of his journey in fulfilling the mission assigned him as part of the imperial embassy, the ambassador quite proved that he deserved the position to settle border treaty negotiations between Suleiman ‘the Magnificent’ and the future emperor of Rome. With Ogier Ghiselin’s composition of the Turkish letters, one acquires a perspective of making history through diverse experiential learning like that of Busbecq as he made the most of his stay in Istanbul. Eventually, this establishes